4.4 Culture: Romance & Realism

ROMANTICISM
At the end of the eighteenth century, the intellectual movement known as romanticism emerged in reaction to Enlightenment ideas. The Enlightenment had stressed reason for discovering truth. The romantics emphasized feelings and imagination as sources of knowing.
For romanticism, emotions were truly knowable only by the person experiencing them. Romantic works often feature figures isolated from society but sure about the worth of their inner lives. Romanticism also stressed individualism, the belief that each person is unique. Many romantics rebelled against middle-class conventions.
Many romantics also had a deep interest in the past, and revived medieval architectural styles, such as with the Houses of Parliament in London. Sir Walter Scott’s novel of clashes among medieval knights, Ivanhoe, was wildly popular. By focusing on their nation’s past, many romantic writers reflected nineteenth-century nationalism. The exotic, unfamiliar, and extreme attracted romantics, as is seen in Gothic literature such as Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein and the works of Edgar Allen Poe.
Romantics viewed poetry as the direct expression of the soul. Romantic poetry gave expression to a vital part of romanticism, the love of nature. This is clearly seen in the poetry of William Wordsworth. The worship of nature caused romantics to criticize the new science, which they believed reduced nature to a cold object of mathematical study that had no room for the imagination or the human soul.
In Shelley’s novel, Frankenstein’s monster was a symbol of the danger of science’s attempt to conquer nature. Romantics feared that industrialization would alienate people from their inner selves and the natural world.
Romantic artists shared two basic beliefs: art reflects the artist’s inner soul and art should abandon classical reason for warmth and emotion. Eugène Delacroix was the most famous romantic painter in France.
To many, music was the most romantic art because it probed so deeply into human emotions. Ludwig van Beethoven was one of the greatest composers of all time. While his early work was more classical, his later music, beginning with his Third Symphony, embodied the drama and power of romanticism. He felt music had to reflect deep feeling.

NEW AGE OF SCIENCE
The Industrial Revolution increased interest in scientific research. By the 1830s science had made discoveries that benefited all Europeans.
The Frenchman Louis Pasteur proposed the germ theory of disease, laying the foundation for modern medical research. The Russian Dmitry Mendeleyev classified all the materials elements then known by their atomic weights. The Englishman Michael Faraday was laying the foundation for the use of electric current.
Europeans’ increasing faith in science and the material world weakened their religious faith. Secularization increased throughout the nineteenth century. No one did more to create a picture of humans as material beings than Charles Darwin. In 1859 Charles Darwin published his On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection. Darwin proposed his principle of organic evolution. Species of animals and plants develop through a struggle for existence. Those that adapt better survive, in a process Darwin called natural selection.
Darwin argued in The Descent of Man that human beings had animal origins. Darwin’s ideas were controversial, but over the years many scientists and intellectuals have accepted them.

REALISM
The belief that the world should be viewed realistically is related to the scientific outlook and the modern “politics of reality.” Realism became a movement in the arts as well.
Literary realists rejected romanticism. They wanted to depict actual characters from real life, not exotic, past heroes. The French author Gustave Flaubert perfected the realist novel, most famously in Madame Bovary where he criticizes stifling, conformist small-town life in France.
The British novelist Charles Dickens wrote highly successful realist novels focusing on the lower and middle classes in Britain’s early Industrial Age. He described the brutal realities of urban poverty.
The French painter Gustave Courbet was the most famous realist painter, portraying scenes of workers, peasants, and the wives of saloon keepers. He would paint only what he could see. Many objected to his paintings as ugly and found his painting of human misery scandalous. To Courbet, no subject was too ordinary, too harsh, or too ugly.

4-3 Notes: Nationalism and Unification

Breakdown of the Concert of Europe

• The nationalist goals of the 1848 revolutionaries would be achieved later. By 1871 both Germany and Italy were unified, a change caused by the Crimean War.
• The Crimean War was rooted in a conflict between Russia and the Ottoman Empire, which controlled much of the Balkans in southeastern Europe. The power of the Ottoman Empire declined in the nineteenth century.
• Russia wanted to expand into the Balkans so it could have access to the Dardanelles and the Mediterranean Sea, giving it the naval might to be the great power in eastern Europe. Russia invaded the Turkish Balkan provinces of Moldavia and Walachia, and the Ottomans declared war on Russia. Great Britain and France, fearing Russia’s ambitions, allied with the Ottomans. The Crimean War was on.
• Heavy losses caused the Russians to seek peace. In the Treaty of Paris of 1856, Russia agreed to have Moldavia and Walachia placed under the protection of all the great powers.
• The Crimean War destroyed the Concert of Europe. Austria and Russia had been the two powers maintaining order, but now they were enemies because Austria had not supported Russia in the Crimean War due to its own interests in the Balkans.
• Russia withdrew from European affairs for the next 20 years. Austria had no friends among the great powers, and Germany and Italy now could unify.

Italian Unification

• In 1850 Austria was still the dominant power on the Italian Peninsula. After 1848 people looked to the northern Italian state of Piedmont to lead the fight for unification.
• The king of Piedmont named Camillo di Cavour his prime minister. Cavour pursued economic expansion, which gave the government enough money to support a large army. He then made an alliance with the French emperor Louis-Napoleon, knowing his army by itself could not defeat Austria, and provoked the Austrians into invading Piedmont. It was 1859.
• The conflict resulted in a peace settlement that made Piedmont an independent state. Cavour’s success caused nationalists in other northern Italian states to overthrow their governments and join their states to Piedmont.

• In southern Italy a new patriotic leader for unification emerged—Giuseppe Garibaldi. He raised an army of one thousand volunteers, called Red Shirts because of the color of their uniforms.
• France ruled the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies (Sicily and Naples). A revolt broke out in Sicily against the Bourbon king, and Garibaldi and his forces landed on the island. By July 1860 they controlled most of the island. They marched up the mainland and Naples soon fell. Garibaldi turned his conquests over to Piedmont, and in 1861 a new Kingdom of Italy was proclaimed. King Victor Emmanuel II, who had been king of Piedmont, was crowned ruler.
• Italy’s full unification would mean adding Venetia, held by Austria, and Rome, held by the pope and supported by the French. The Italian state allied with Prussia in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866. When Prussia won, it gave Venetia to the Italians. France withdrew from Rome in 1870. The Italian army annexed Rome that same year, and Rome became the capital of the united Italy.

German Unification

• Prussia led Germans unification.
• 1860s: William I tried to make the army bigger, and tried to raise taxes to pay for it
• When the legislature refused to levy the tax, William I appointed a new prime minister, Otto von Bismarck.
• One of the greatest 19th c. followers of realpolitik - practical politics that don’t care about ethics and are more focused on power.
• He ignored the legislature because he believed that the army was more important than the people having a say
• Allied with Austria and took over Denmark
• Austro-Prussian War (1866): Bismark turns against his allies, Austria, and they fight. Prussia’s army is better, and they win.
• Prussia organized northern German states into a North German Confederation.
• The southern German states signed military alliances with Prussia for protection against France, even though Prussia was Protestant and southern Germany was Catholic.
• France feared a strong German state.
• Franco-Prussian War (1870): Both France and Prussia argued over who would become king of Spain; this led to war.
• Prussia won, advancing into France, capturing the king (Napoleon III) and an entire army.
• Paris surrendered and signed a treaty in 1871.
• France paid 5 billion francs and gave up the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine.
• After the Prussian victory, the southern states joined the North German Confederation.
• On January 18, 1871, in the Hall of Mirrors in the palace of Versailles, William I of Prussia was proclaimed kaiser, or emperor, of the Second German Empire (the first was the Holy Roman Empire).
• Military power combined with industrial resources made the new state the strongest power on the European continent.

Nationalism and Reform in Europe
Britain

• A good economy added to its stability.
• After 1850, the industrial middle class was prosperous and the wages of the industrial working class were beginning to go up.
• The British feeling of national pride was reflected in Queen Victoria (ruled 1837-1901). Her sense of duty and moral respectability were reflected in her era, known as the Victorian Age.

France

• After 1848 events in France moved towards restoring the monarchy.
• In the 1852 plebiscite, or popular vote, 97% voted to restore the empire. Louis-Napoleon became Napoleon III.
• Napoleon III’s government was authoritarian.
• He controlled the army, police, and civil service.
• Only he could introduce laws or declare war.
• He limited civil liberties and focused on expanding the economy.
• Government subsidies built railroads, harbors, canals, and roads. Iron production tripled.
• He also fixed up Paris, putting in better streets, big buildings, public squares, an underground sewage system, a public water supply, and gaslights. It was modern.
• After the Prussians defeated the French the Second Empire fell.

Austria

• The multinational state of Austria had been able to stop attempts of its ethnic groups for independence.
• After 1848 and 1849, the Hapsburg rulers restored centralized, autocratic government.
• After the Austro-Prussian War, Austria had to make a deal with Hungary
• Compromise of 1867: It created the dual Austria-Hungary monarchy.
• Each party had its own constitution, legislature, bureaucracy, and capital—Vienna for Austria and Budapest for Hungary.
• Holding the two states together was a single monarch (Francis Joseph), a common army, foreign policy, and a shared financial system.
• Domestically, Hungary had become an independent state. Other states were not happy with the compromise.

Russia

• At the beginning of the 19th c,, Russia was a highly rural, autocratic state with a divine-right monarch with absolute power.
• When Russia was defeated in the Crimean War, Czar Alexander knew that Russia was falling behind western Europe and needed to modernize.
• New Reforms: 1861- he freed the serfs with an emancipation edict.
• Peasants could now own property and marry as they wished.
• The government bought land from the landlords and gave it to the peasants.
• Landowners often kept the best land for themselves, and the system was not helpful to peasants. Emancipation had led to an unhappy, land-starved peasantry following old ways of farming.
• A group of radicals assassinated Alexander II in 1881. His son and successor returned to the old methods of repression—soldiers, secret police, censorship, and the like.

USA

• The U.S. Constitution followed the ideals of nationalism and liberalism.
• Federalists and Republicans fought over the division of power. The Federalists wanted a strong central government, the Republicans wanted strong state governments.
• The election of Andrew Jackson opened a new, more democratic era of American politics. The right to vote was extended to all adult white males, regardless of property.
• By the mid 19th American unity was threatened by slavery. The South wanted to keep slavery. Abolitionism, a movement to end slavery, arose in the North and challenged the South.
• After Abraham Lincoln was elected president, South Carolina and six other southern states seceded (withdrew) from the Union, and the Civil War(1861-1865) broke out
• Over 600,000 soldiers died.
• In 1863 President Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, freeing the slaves.
• On April 9, 1865, the South surrendered and national unity prevailed in the United States.

4-2: Reaction & Revolution

Reaction and Revolution
• The Congress of Vienna (Sept 1814)
o Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia
o Met to restore order after Napoleon
Restoration of the monarchy
o Rearranged to keep the balance of power
Kept any one country from dominating Europe
o Led by Von Mitternich, the Austrian foreign minister
• The Conservative Order
o Leaders in the Congress were believers in conservatism
Based on tradition and stability
Organization is essential
Avoided resolution of problems
o Concert of Europe - meetings of the great powers to maintain power
o They adopted a principle of intervention
Any country could send armies into another country to stop rebellion & reinstate the monarch
Every country but agreed Britain
• Forces of Change
o Liberalism – a philosophy based on Enlightenment ideals
People should be free from restraints
Pushed for the protection of basic rights for all people, or civil liberties
• Freedom of speech, press, etc
• Equality under the law
• Rights should be outlined in a document like the Bill of Rights
• Wanted religious toleration
• Separation of church & state
Wanted constitutional monarchy
• King + legislature to make laws
Did not believe in democracy
• Gives power and votes to the middle class
o Nationalism – a movement based on the people’s awareness of being part of a community or nation
Bonded by commonalities
People are loyal to the nation, not a dynasty or other unit
Became popular after the French Revolution
Other countries found nationalism
• German states wanted to become unified
• Hungarians wanted their own rule
Became a threat to existing political order
• Conservatives worried
Became tied to liberalism and reached a wider audience
o Revolutionary outbursts began in 1830, influenced by liberalism and nationalism
Successful
• France: liberals kicked out Charles X and put a new king, Louis-Philippe, on the throne
• Belgium: rebelled and became an independent state
Not
Poland: tried to rebel, beaten by Russia
Italy: defeated by Austria
• The Revolutions of 1848 – liberal and national forces grew & clashed with conservative governments
o France – influenced other revolutions
Causes:
• 1) economic problems
• 2) middle class wanted the right to vote
• 3) government wouldn’t make changes
Govt was overthrown by republicans (people who wanted France to be a republic)
• Set up a provisional (temporary) gov’t
o Set up a group to write a new constitution
o Opened workshops to employ the jobless, which bankrupted the gov’t so they were shut down
o Workers got upset and rioted, were defeated & sent to prison
• Nov 4, 1848 – new constitution set up a republic
o Gov’t elected by universal male suffrage (all adult men can vote)
New president – Louis_Napoeeon
o Germany
German Confederation: 38 independent German states (including Austria & Prussia)
• To calm cries for change, rulers promised lots of things
• The Frankfurt Assembly, an all-German Parliament, was set up to write a constitution for a united Germany
o It failed because the Assembly couldn’t force rulers to accept it
o Central Europe
Austrian Empire was a multinational state
Revolutionary groups from several of the smaller countries inside it pushed for independence
• Hungary got its own legislature
• Bohemia pushed for its own gov’t
• Both areas were eventually subdued
o Italy
9 states set up in Italy – some of them were controlled by Austria
A revolt broke out in 1848 to try and make a unified liberal Italy
• Defeated by the Austrians

French Revolution Test Review

Identifty the following people:
Louis XVI
Marie Antoinette
Robespierre
Jean Paul Marat
Georges Danton
sans-culottes

What did the National Assembly do?
What was the Tennis Court Oath?
What was the Civil Constitution of the Clergy?
What did the Legislative Assembly do?
What did the Paris Commune do?
What was the Declaratio of the Rights of Man and Citizen?


What were Napoleon's mistakes?
What did he do England?
Wherewas Napoleon sent?
What was the Civil Code?

Creating a Tombstone: the French Revolution

Creating a Tombstone: the French Revolution

1)      Choose a person/thing from the French Revolution

a.       Louis XVI

b.      Marie Antoinette

c.       Charlotte Corday

d.      Jean Paul Marat

e.       Olympe de Gouges

f.       Georges Danton

g.      The Bastille

h.      Maximillian Robespierre

i.        French Monarchy

j.        National Assembly

k.      Legislative Assembly

l.        National Convention

2)      Using your tombstone, make a tombstone for that person.  Include:

a.       name

b.      dates (birth, death)

c.       who/what they were

d.      why they were important

e.       how they died/ how it ended

3)      Use colors & image to make it look good.

If you use pencil, make sure you go over it with pen at the end.  

Due at the end of class 10/15

French Revolution Timeline

1740: War of Austrian Succession – France goes into debt
May 1770 – Louie marries Marie Antoinette
1774 – Louis XVI takes power
1776 – American Revolution begins
1778 – France gives aid to the colonists, goes further into debt
1783 – Treaty of Paris ends American Revolution…the colonists freedom makes the French people jealous
1786 – France is broke
1787 – the government works to crate a new tax plan to help the country get money
July 2-parliament rejects the new tax law
Aug 6-Louis calls an impromptu parliament who passes it. Parliament declares Louis’s move illegal
Aug 15- Louis disbands parliament
1788 (Dec) The Minister of Finance, Jacques Necker, doubles the representatives of the third Estate in the Estates General
1789 – (May 5 ) Estates General meets
June 10 – The third estate’s vote is vetoed by the 1st and 2nd estate
Jun 17 –upset by their lack of power, the 3rd estate declares itself a National Assembly
June 20 – the national assembly is locked out of the meeting house and signs the Tennis Court Oath, declaring that thy will continue to met until they sign a constitution
Members of the other estates join the national assembly
July 14 – a large crowd storms the Bastille
July 17 –beginning of the Great Fear
August 4 –August decree –abolition of feudalism
Aug 26 – Assembly adopts the declaration of the rights of man and citizen
October 5-6 – Paris Mob forms; the women march to Versailles and take the king hostage and move him to Paris; Louis agrees to pass the August decrees
November – Church property and money is taken by the state
1790 –July 12 – Civil Constitution of the Clergy
1791 –Jun 20-25 – Louis and his family attempt to flee…they’re captured and brought back to Paris
Oct 1 – National Assembly disband – Legislative Assembly is formed
1792 – Jan – March: food riots in Paris
August: storming of the palace – Louis and his family are arrested and taken into custody
September - September massacres – half the population of Paris is executed.
Sept 13 –Louis accepts the Assembly’s constitution.
Sept 20: National Convention is formed, made up of elected French men, mostly of the Jacobin Cordelier, and Girondin clubs.
Sept 21 – monarchy is abolished
1793 – Jan – Louis XVI executed
July – Robespierre takes control of the Committee of Public Safety
July 1793 – 1794 – Reign of Terror
1794 – July 28 - Robespierre executed; reign of terror ends
1794 – 1795 – Thermidorian Reaction: marked the return to moderation; the focus went back to how to fix the economy of France
1795-1799 – the Directory rules France
1799 – Napoleon overthrows the government and takes control of France