First Semester Study Guide

Be able to discuss the definition and importance of each of the following

For each word/person/event, make sure you know:  what it is, what they believed, what happened, how it is important

Chapter 2

James 1

James II

Charles I

Charles II

Divine right of kings

Jean Jacques Rousseau’s ideas

John Locke

Laissez-faire

Who is the father of rationalism?

Chapter 3

Committee of Public Safety

Maximillian Robespierre

Constitution of 1791

De-Christianization

Reign of Terror

Continental System

Napoleon

What led to Napoleon’s defeat?

2 reasons Napoleon’s empire collapsed

Chapter 4

Factory system

Reasons the Industrial Revolution started in England

Key inventions of the Industrial Revolution

Social change during the Industrial Revolution

Resources/elements used in the 1^st Industrial Revolution

New methods of transportation

Principle of intervention

Ministerial responsibility

Chapter 5

2 forms of Marxism

Resources/elements used in the 2^nd Industrial Revolution

Triple Alliance

Nationalism in the USA

Change in the Austrain Empire

Nationalism

Chapter 6

White Man’s Burden

Boers

Indian National Congress

Which countries remained independent

Direct rule

Indirect rule

Mohandas Gandhi

mestizos

Chapter 7

Open Door Policy

Tai Ping Rebellion

Self-strengthening

Meji Restoration

Short answer

What other events in history inspired the French Revolution?

Essay

How have both the First and Second Industrial Revolutions changed the way we lived today?  What effect did they have on the way people lived and worked?

What was Imperialism?  How did colonizing of areas affect the people living in them?  Write an essay that outlines the positive and negative effects of 19^th century imperialism. 

Describe the events that occurred during the French Revolution and how they affected the society and government. What role did women play in the Revolution?

6.2 Africa

WEST AFRICA
Europeans did not hesitate to deceive Africans in order to get their land and natural resources.
Driven by of rivalries among themselves, Great Britain, France, Germany, Belgium, and Portugal placed almost all of Africa under European rule between 1880 and 1890.
West Africa was particularly affected by the slave trade, but trafficking in slaves had declined after it was declared illegal by both Great Britain and the United States by 1808. By the 1890s slavery was abolished in all the major countries of the world.
As slavery declined, Europe’s interest in other forms of trade increased—for example, trading manufactured goods for peanuts, timber, hides, and palm oil. In the early nineteenth century, the British established settlements along the Gold Coast and in Sierra Leone. The growing European presence in West Africa caused increasing tensions with local African governments, who feared for their independence.
In 1874 Great Britain annexed (incorporated a country within a state) the west coastal states as the first British colony of Gold Coast. Simultaneously, it established a protectorate over warring Nigerian groups.
France controlled the largest part of West Africa, and Germany controlled Togo, Cameroon, and German Southwest Africa (now Namibia).

NORTH AFRICA
Egypt had been part of the Ottoman Empire. In 1805, an officer of the Ottoman army named Muhammad Ali seized power and established a separate Egyptian state.
Ali introduced a series of reforms to modernize Egypt. He modernized the army, set up a public school system, and helped create small industries.
The growing economic importance of the Nile Valley along with the development of steamships gave Europeans a desire to build a canal east of Cairo to connect the Mediterranean and Red Seas. In 1854 Ferdinand de Lesseps, a Frenchman, signed a contract to build the Suez Canal. The canal was completed in 1869.
Great Britain bought Egypt’s share in the Suez Canal. Britain suppressed an 1881 revolt against foreign influence, and Egypt became a British protectorate in 1915.
The British believed they should control the Sudan, south of Egypt. In 1881 the Muslim cleric Muhammad Ahmad seized control of the Sudan and defeated the British military force under General Charles Gordon. The British army was wiped out at Khartoum; Gordon died in the battle. The British seized the Sudan again in 1898.
The French had colonies in North Africa. In 1879, 150,000 French had settled in the region of Algeria. The French government established control there, along with making protectorates of Tunisia and Morocco.
Italy joined the competition for North African colonies by trying to take over Ethiopia. Ethiopian forces defeated the Italians in 1896. Italy was humiliated and tried again in 1911 to conquer Ethiopia. Italy seized Turkish Tripoli, which it renamed Libya.

CENTRAL AFRICA
European explorers had generated European interest in the dense tropical jungles of Central Africa.
David Livingstone was one such explorer. He arrived in Africa in 1841 and trekked through the unexplored interior for 30 years. When he disappeared for a while, the New York Herald sent the young journalist Henry Stanley to find him. When Stanley found him, he said the now famous words, “Dr. Livingstone, I presume.”
Although he said he hated the place, Stanley stayed in Africa, and in the 1870s he sailed down the Congo River. He encouraged the British to send settlers to the Congo River basin. When Britain refused, Stanley turned to King Leopold II of Belgium.
King Leopold II was the real driving force behind the colonization of Central Africa. In 1876 he hired Henry Stanley to set up Belgian settlements in the Congo. Belgium’s claim to the vast territories of the Congo worried other European states.
France especially rushed to gain territories in Central Africa. Belgium ended up with the territories south of the Congo River, and France received the territories north of the Congo River.

EAST AFRICA
By 1875 Britain and Germany had become the chief rivals in East Africa. At first Bismarck had downplayed the importance of colonies. He became a convert to colonialism, however, after more and more Germans called for a German empire.
Germany was one of many European nations interested in East African colonies. At the 1884 Berlin Conference, the major European powers divided up East Africa, giving recognition to German, British, and Portuguese claims. No African delegates were present at the conference.

SOUTH AFRICA
The European presence in Africa grew most rapidly in the south. By 1865 close to two hundred thousand white people had moved to the southern part of Africa.
The Boers, also called Afrikaners, were the descendants of the original Dutch settlers who occupied Cape Town in South Africa in the seventeenth century. Later, the British seized these lands. In the 1830s the Boers fled British rule, going northward and establishing the independent republics of Transvaal—later the South African Republic—and the Orange Free State. The Boers believed white supremacy was ordained by God; therefore, they put a lot of the indigenous (native) peoples on reservations.
The Boers frequently battled the Zulu, an indigenous people. The Zulu had risen to prominence under their great ruler, Shaka. Later the British defeated the Zulu.
In the 1880s British policy in South Africa was directed by Cecil Rhodes, who had set up diamond and gold companies that had made him fabulously wealthy. He named the territory north of the Transvaal Rhodesia, after himself.
Rhodes’s ambitions led to his downfall in 1896. The British government forced him to resign as prime minister of Cape Colony after finding out he planned to overthrow the Boer government of the South African Republic without British approval. Conflict broke out between the British and the Boers, leading to war.
The Boer War went from 1899 to 1902. Fierce guerrilla resistance by the Boers angered the British, who burned crops and herded more than 150,000 Boer women and children into detention camps, causing 26,000 to die.
In 1910 the British created the independent Union of South Africa, combining the Cape Colony and the Boer republics. This was a self-governing nation within the British Empire. To appease the Boers, the policy was that only whites could vote.

COLONIAL RULE IN AFRICA
By 1914 only Liberia, which had been created by freed United States slaves, and Ethiopia were African nations free of European domination. Native armed forces had been devastated by the superior European forces.
Britain especially relied on existing political elites and institutions to govern its colonies. An advantage of indirect rule for the indigenous peoples is that it interfered much less with their traditions and customs. However, most decisions came from the parent country, and local rulers rubber-stamped and enforced these decisions, maintaining their power. This system sowed the seeds of later class and tribal tensions among native peoples.
The French ideal was to assimilate the African peoples. They did not want to preserve African traditions.

RISE OF AFRICAN NATIONALISM
A new class of African leaders emerged in the early twentieth century. Mostly intellectuals, they knew about the West from their education in colonial and Western schools. The members of this new class often admired Western culture and wanted to introduce Western ideas and institutions to their culture because they saw certain aspects of European culture as superior to their own cultures.
These same people often resented the foreigners and their contempt for Africa. These intellectuals saw the gap between Western democratic theory and Western colonial practice. Africans had little chance to participate in the colonial institutions, and many had lost their farms for terrible jobs in sweatshops or on plantations.
Middle-class Africans also could complain, not just the poor peasants. They usually had only menial jobs in the government or bureaucracy, and they were paid much less than whites. Europeans segregated most of society, and often called adult black males “boy.”
During the first quarter of the twentieth century, resentment turned to action. Educated native peoples began to organize political parties and movements to end foreign rule.

6.1 SE Asia

THE NEW IMPERIALSIM
In the 1800s European nations began a new push of imperialism—the extension of a nation’s power over other lands.
A new phase of Western expansion into and trade with Asia and Africa began in the nineteenth century. Asia and Africa were seen as a source of raw materials for industrial production and as a market for Europe’s manufactured goods.
This “new imperialism,” as some historians have called it, was not content to have trading posts and agreements, as the old imperialism was, but wanted direct control over territories.
There was a strong economic motive for Western nations to increase their search for colonies after 1880. Europeans wanted direct control of the raw materials and markets it found in Asia, Africa, and Latin America.
European nations also acquired colonies to gain an advantage over European rivals looking for colonies and world power. Having colonies was a source of national prestige as well.
The new imperialism was tied to racism and Social Darwinism. To Social Darwinists, the imperialist European nations were simply exerting themselves in the struggle for the fittest to survive. Losing nations were racially inferior nations, these people argued erroneously. Others believed that the Western nations had a moral or religious duty to “civilize” Asian, African, and Latin American nations, which often meant to Christianize them.

COLONIAL TAKEOVER IN SOUTHEAST ASIA
By 1900 almost all of Southeast Asia was under Western rule.
Great Britain led the way in nineteenth-century imperial colonialism. In 1819 Great Britain founded a colony on a small island called Singapore (“city of the lion”). In the new age of steamships, Singapore soon became a major port for traffic to and from China.
The British moved deeper into Southeast Asia in the next decades. Britain took control of Burma (present-day Myanmar) to protect its possessions in India and to have a land route to South China.
France had interests in Vietnam and was alarmed by British expansion into Southeast Asia. To stop any British move on Vietnam, the French government decided in 1857 to force the Vietnamese to accept French protection. By 1884, the French had seized control of the country and made the Vietnamese Empire into a French protectorate—a political unit that depends on another government for its protection. In the 1880s France extended protection over neighboring Cambodia, Laos, Annam, and Tonkin.
In the final quarter of the nineteenth century, both Britain and France tried to make Thailand into a colony. Two remarkable rulers prevented the takeover—King Mongkut (memorialized in The King and I) and his son King Chulalongkorn. Both promoted friendly relations with the West and Western learning. In 1896 France and Britain agreed to maintain Thailand as an independent buffer state between their possessions.
The United States naval forces under Commodore George Dewey defeated the Spanish in Manila Bay in the Philippines. President William McKinley believed it was his moral duty to civilize other parts of the world. Colonizing the Philippines would also prevent it from coming under Japanese rule and would serve the United States’s interest in securing a jumping-off point for trade with China.
Many Filipinos objected to the colonization—for example Emilio Aguinaldo, the leader of an independence movement. His guerrilla forces fought against the Spanish and the United States, who defeated the guerrillas.

COLONIAL REGIMES IN SOUTHEAST ASIA
The chief goal of the Western powers in their colonies was to exploit the natural resources and open up markets for Western manufactured goods. The colonial powers ruled either indirectly or directly.
Indirect rule was used when allowing local rulers and political elites their authority best achieved the goals of the Western parent country. This approach was the preferred route because it made ruling easier and less costly.
Especially when local elites resisted foreign conquest, indirect rule was not practicable. In these cases new officials from the mother country were put in charge of taxes, law and order, and other governmental matters. This system is called direct rule. This was Britain’s approach in Burma, for example, where the British abolished the monarchy.
France used direct and indirect rule in Indochina. It imposed direct rule in the southern provinces in the Mekong delta, which had been ceded to France as a colony after the first war in 1858 to 1860. In the northern parts of Vietnam, France used indirect rule (protectorate).
Western powers often justified their conquests by arguing they brought civilization and development. These same powers, however, often feared the indigenous peoples gaining political rights. The native peoples might want full participation in the government or independence.
Colonial powers did not want their colonists to develop their own industries. Thus, the parent countries stressed exporting raw materials—teak wood, rubber, tin, spices, tea, coffee, sugar, and others.
In many places the native people worked as wage laborers on plantations owned by foreign investors. Plantation owners kept wages at a poverty level. Conditions on plantations often were horrible. Colonial governments often levied high taxes on the peasants.
Colonial rule did bring benefits to Southeast Asia. It began a modern economic system and improved infrastructure. Expanded exports developed an entrepreneurial class in rural areas, even though most of the export profits went to the mother country.

RESISTANCE TO COLONIAL RULE
Initial resistance to colonial rule came from the ruling classes among the subject peoples. Sometimes resistance to Western rule took the form of peasant revolts. Peasants often were driven off land to make way for plantation agriculture.
Early resistance movements were overcome by Western powers. At the beginning of the twentieth century, a new kind of resistance based on the force of nationalism emerged. The leaders often were a new class created by colonial rule: westernized intellectuals in the cities.
These new leaders were part of a new urban middle class—merchants, clerks, students, and professionals—which had been educated in Western schools, spoke Western languages, and knew Western customs. At first the resistance movements organized to protect religious traditions and traditional cultural customs. In the 1930s these resistance movements began to demand national independence.

5.4

FROM CERTAINTY TO UNCERTAINTY
Before 1914 the Enlightenment ideals of reason, science, and progress remained important to many Europeans.
Science was a chief pillar of the West’s optimism about the future. Many believed science could yield a complete picture of reality. One basis of this belief was the belief in the Newtonian, mechanical conception of the universe. In this conception, everything ran in a machine-like, orderly fashion through knowable laws of causality acting on the basic constituents of the material world, atoms.
The French scientist Marie Curie discovered radium, an element that gave off energy. It appeared that atoms were worlds in themselves, not just hard material bodies.
In 1905 the German-born physicist Albert Einstein provided a new picture of the universe. His special theory of relativity stated that space and time are not absolute but are relative to the observer.
Matter and energy reflect the relativity of space and time. Matter was now believed to be energy, an idea that led to understanding the energies within atoms and to the Atomic Age.
To some, Einstein’s relative universe took the certainty out of the mechanical, Newtonian universe.
At the turn of the century, a doctor from Vienna named Sigmund Freud proposed groundbreaking theories about the human mind and human nature. These added to the uncertainty of the era.
Freud argued that human behavior is strongly influenced by past experiences and internal forces that people for the most part are not aware of. Painful experiences were repressed and then they influenced people’s actions without their knowledge. Repression began in childhood.
To help rid people of these repressed unconscious forces, Freud proposed a method called psychoanalysis. Patient and therapist probe deep into the patient’s psyche through free association, talking, and dream analysis to go back to childhood and confront the painful experiences to unlock the repression.
The patient’s gaining control of the painful experience and being released from the unconscious control of the repression led to healing. Freud’s work gave us such concepts as the unconscious and repression, and eventually led to a major new profession—psychological therapy.

SOCIAL DARWINISM AND ANTISEMITISM
Sometimes scientific theories were misapplied. One example is Social Darwinism. Racists and nationalists misapplied Darwin’s ideas to human society.
Herbert Spencer of Britain was the most popular Social Darwinist. He argued that social progress comes from the struggle for survival. Some businessmen adopted this view to explain their success, saying the poor were just weak and lazy.
Extreme nationalists said that nations were in a Darwinian struggle for survival. The German general Friedrich von Bernhardi said that war was a biological necessity for society to rid it of the weak and unfit.
The combination of extreme nationalism and racism that came out of Social Darwinism was most evident in Germany. Houston Stewart Chamberlain, a Briton who became a German citizen, argued that Germans were the only pure successors of the Aryans, the supposed original creators of Western culture, and that Jews were the enemy of the Aryan race.
Anti-Semitism is hostility and discrimination against Jews and a significant feature of modern European history. Since the Middle Ages, Jews had been portrayed as the murderers of Christ, subjected to mob violence, and had had their rights restricted.
In the nineteenth century, Jews had increasingly assumed positions within mainstream European society. The Dreyfus affair in France showed that these gains were tenuous.
Alfred Dreyfus, a Jewish captain in the French army, was accused of selling military secrets. He was sentenced to life imprisonment even though evidence showed his innocence and pointed to the guilt of a Catholic officer. Public outrage finally resulted in a new trial and pardon for Dreyfus.
During the 1880s and 1890s, anti-Semitic political parties sprang up in Germany and Austria-Hungary. The worst treatment was in eastern Europe, where 72 percent of the world Jewish population lived. In Russia, for example, there were organized persecutions and massacres called pogroms.
To escape persecution, hundreds of thousands of Jews emigrated to the United States and Palestine, where Zionists headed by Theodor Herzl wanted to establish a Jewish homeland and state. That desire remained a dream in the early 1900s.

THE CULTURE OF MODERNITY
Between 1870 and 1914 many artists and writers rebelled against traditional artistic and literary styles, creating an aesthetic called modernism.
Between 1870 and 1914 many artists and writers rebelled against traditional artistic and literary styles, creating an aesthetic called modernism.
At the beginning of the twentieth century, a group of writers known as the symbolists caused a literary revolution by arguing that art should be about the inner life of people and should serve only art, not social progress.
This period was one of the most productive in the history of art. Impressionism was a movement begun in France in the 1870s, most importantly by Claude Monet. Impressionists left the studio and painted outdoors, hoping to capture the light that illuminated objects, rather than the objects themselves.
Postimpressionism arose in France and Europe in the 1880s. Vincent van Gogh was a famous Postimpressionist. For him, art was a spiritual experience. He believed color was its own kind of language.
By the twentieth century the idea that the point of art was to accurately depict the world had lost much of its meaning. This job was given to the emerging genre of photography. Photography was widespread after George Eastman created his first Kodak camera in 1888. Now anyone could capture reality.
Artists came to see their strength was in creating reality, not mirroring it as the camera did. These artists found meaning in individual consciousness and created modern art.
One of the most famous figures in modern art was the Spaniard Pablo Picasso. He began his career by 1905. He created a new style, called cubism, that used geometric designs to recreate reality. He painted objects from many different views at once. In 1910 abstract painting began with Wassily Kandinsky, who sought to avoid visual reality entirely.
Modernism in architecture gave rise to functionalism—buildings were like products of machines in that they should be useful. In the United States, the Chicago School architect Louis H. Sullivan designed skyscrapers with hardly any external ornamentation. Frank Lloyd Wright was one of Sullivan’s most successful pupils. He pioneered the modern American house.
Developments in music in the early twentieth century paralleled those in painting. The Russian Igor Stravinsky’s The Rite of Spring revolutionized classical music. The audience at its 1913 Paris premiere almost rioted because it was so outraged by the piece’s novel sounds and rhythms.

5.3 Western Europe & Political Democracy

WESTERN EUROPE AND POLITICAL DEMOCRACY
As a result of the massacre of peaceful petitioners in 1905, Czar Nicholas II of Russia faced a revolution. Elsewhere, many people were loyal to their nation-states. By the late nineteenth century, progress had been made in establishing constitutions, parliaments, and individual liberties in the main European states. As more people won the vote, political parties needed to create larger organizations and find ways to appeal to the masses.
In Great Britain, its two parties—the Liberals and Conservatives—competed with each other in passing laws that expanded the right to vote. By 1918 all males over 21 and women over 30 could vote.
Political democracy was fairly well established in Britain by the beginning of the twentieth century. Social reforms for the working class, who followed the Liberals, soon followed. The growth of trade unions, which pursued increasingly radical goals, and the emergence of the new Labour Party made the Liberals fear they would lose the support of the working class.
To retain the support of the workers, the Liberals enacted social reforms like benefits for workers in case of sickness, unemployment, or injury on the job.
In France the collapse of Louis-Napoleon’s Second Empire left the country in confusion. In 1875 a new constitution created a French republic—the Third Republic. The new republic had a president and a two-house legislature, the upper house (Senate) being elected indirectly and the lower house (Chamber of Deputies) being elected by universal male suffrage.
A premier (prime minister) actually ran the new French state. The premier and his ministers were responsible to the Chamber of Deputies. This principle of ministerial responsibility—the idea that the prime minister is responsible to the popularly elected legislative body and not the chief executive—is crucial for democracy.
France failed to develop a strong parliamentary system because it had a dozen political parties. Nonetheless, most French people were loyal to the Third Republic.
Italy emerged as a nation by 1870, but it had little unity because of a great gulf that separated the poor, agricultural south from the rich, industrial north. The unity of the nation was torn by turmoil between labor and industry. Universal male suffrage was granted in 1912 but did little to stop corruption and weakness in the government.

CENTRAL AND EASTERN EUROPE: THE OLD ORDER
Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Russia pursued policies different from other European nations.
In Germany, the constitution of the government begun by Otto von Bismarck in 1871 provided for a two-house legislature. The lower house was the Reichstag, which was elected on the basis of universal male suffrage. Government ministers reported to the emperor, not to the legislature, however.
The emperor also controlled the armed forces, the government bureaucracy, and foreign policy. As chancellor (prime minister), Bismarck worked against democracy. By the time of William II (1888–1918) and the expansion of Germany’s industry, cities grew and cries for democracy increased.Conservatives—landowning nobility and big industrialists—tried to stifle the demands for democracy by supporting a strong foreign policy, thinking that expansion abroad would not only increase profits but would also distract people from making democratic demands.
Austria enacted a constitution after the creation of Austria-Hungary in 1867, but in fact the emperor, Francis Joseph, ignored the parliamentary system. He appointed and dismissed his own ministers and enacted laws when parliament was not in session.
Austria was troubled by disputes among the nationalities under its rule—for example, the Germans, Czechs, Poles, and other Slavic groups. These groups agitated for their own freedom.
Hungary had a parliament that worked. It was controlled by Magyar landowners who dominated the peasants and various ethnic groups.
Nicholas II began his rule in Russia in 1894. He believed in the absolute power of the czars, but conditions were changing. By 1900 industrialization was beginning to take off in Russia. It was the world’s fourth largest producer of steel.
Industrialization brought the creation of an industrial working class and pitiful living conditions for most of its members. Socialist parties developed, and government repression forced them underground. Revolution broke out in 1905.
In 1905 a massive procession of workers went to the Winter Palace in St. Petersburg to present a petition of grievances to the czar. Troops opened fire and killed hundreds of demonstrators. This “Bloody Sunday” caused workers in Russia to call strikes. Nicholas II granted civil liberties and created a legislative assembly, the Duma. Within a few years, however, he again controlled Russia through the army and bureaucracy.

THE UNITED STATES
Between 1870 and 1914 the United States became an industrial power with a foreign empire.
The old South was destroyed in the American Civil War. One-fifth of the adult white male population had been killed, and four million African American slaves were freed. A series of amendments granted African Americans rights, but state laws took these rights away. White supremacy was in power by 1880.
Between 1860 and 1914 the United States shifted from an agrarian to an industrial society. Industrialization led to urbanization. Over 40 percent of the population lived in cities in 1900. By 1900 the United States was the world’s richest nation.
Problems remained. 9 percent of the population owned 71 percent of the wealth. Workers organized unions due to unsafe working conditions and regular cycles of unemployment. By 1900 the American Federation of Labor was labor’s chief voice, but only 8.4 percent of workers were members.
The United States began to expand abroad by the end of the nineteenth century, for example in the Pacific Samoan and Hawaiian Islands. Sugar was a lucrative crop from Hawaii. Americans sought to gain political control in Hawaii. When Queen Liliuokalani tried to retain control of her kingdom, the U.S. government sent troops and deposed her, annexing Hawaii.
In 1898 the United States defeated Spain in the Spanish-American War, gaining Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines. By 1900 the United States had an empire.

INTERNATIONAL RIVALRY
Bismarck formed the Triple Alliance with Austria-Hungary and Italy in 1882. It was a defensive alliance against France, whom Bismarck feared was making anti-German alliances with other nations. In 1890 William II fired Bismarck and pursued a foreign policy of enhancing Germany’s power.
William II dropped Germany’s treaty with Russia. In 1894 France and Russia made an alliance. Great Britain joined with France and Russia in what was known as the Triple Entente. Europe was now divided into two uncompromising camps. Events in the Balkans moved the world toward war.

CRISES IN THE BALKANS
Balkan provinces of the Ottoman Empire had gradually gained independence over the nineteenth century. Greece, Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro were independent by 1878. Bosnia and Herzegovina were annexed by Austria-Hungary in 1908.
The Serbs opposed the annexation because they wanted to subsume Bosnia and Herzegovina to create a large, Slavic nation. Russia supported the Serbians in this effort. William II demanded Russia acknowledge Austria-Hungary’s claim. The result would be war if Russia did not.
Allies of Austria-Hungary and of Russia were determined to support the countries on their sides. In 1914 each side viewed the other with suspicion and hostility.

5-2 Emergence of Mass Society

What is Mass Society?

• The majority of people
• In this case, the lower classes
• Mostly located in cities
• Government now had to pay attention to them and their needs

Major Concerns

• Sanitation – water was polluted and there was no set way for people to get rid of their waste
• This led to diseases like cholera
• Unsafe housing – many builders hadn’t paid attention to safety issues when constructing apartments and other buildings

City Reforms

• Cities required health and building inspectors to check housing
• Dams & reservoirs were made to store safe, clean water for city use
• Sewage systems were installed in cities

• Social Structure

Wealthy Elite (5%)

• Industrialists, merchants, bankers, aristocrats
• The people with the most $$
• Upper middle class
• Doctors, lawyers, architects, accountants, engineers, etc

Middle class

• Lower middle class
• Small shopkeepers, traders, farmers
• Working class
• 80 % of the population
• Middle class – believed in hard work
• Went to church
• Manners were very important

White collar workers – between middle & working class

• Sales people, secretaries, phone operators, bookkeepers

Working class

• Improved wages & lowered cost of goods meant that they had more $$ to spend on fun
• 10 hr workdays meant more free time

Education

• Universal education – everyone goes to school (between 6 & 12 years old)
• New jobs meant that people had to be more educated ( like clerks, bank workers, salespeople, phone operators)
• Since everyone could vote, the gov’t wanted them educated
• Women also received an education

Literacy

• More and more people could read
• Magazines and newspapers adapted for the masses
• Added pictures, shorter, more colorful stories, and gruesome details to attract readers

Leisure

• After work, weekends, and summer vacation
• New forms of fun cost money
• Amusement parks and sports teams were created

5.1 Growth of Industrial Prosperity

THE SECOND INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
Westerners in the 1800s worshiped progress due to the amazing material growth from the Second Industrial Revolution. Steel, chemicals, electricity, and oil were the new industrial frontiers.
Between 1870 and 1914 steel replaced iron. New methods for shaping steel made it possible to build lighter, smaller, and faster machines, engines, railroads, and more. By 1913 Great Britain, France, Belgium, and Germany were producing an astounding 32 million tons of steel a year.
The new energy form of electricity was quite valuable because it was convertible into heat, light, or motion. By 1910 hydroelectric power stations and coal-fired steam generating plants allowed houses and factories to have a single, common power source.
Electricity gave birth to many inventions, such as the light bulb invented by Thomas Edison in the United States and Joseph Swan in Great Britain. A revolution in communications was ushered in when Alexander Graham Bell invented the telephone (1876) and Guglielmo Marconi sent the first radio waves across the Atlantic (1901).
Electricity gave birth to many inventions, such as the light bulb invented by Thomas Edison in the United States and Joseph Swan in Great Britain. A revolution in communications was ushered in when Alexander Graham Bell invented the telephone (1876) and Guglielmo Marconi sent the first radio waves across the Atlantic (1901).
By the 1880s streetcars and subways powered by electricity appeared in European cities. Electricity also changed the factory. With electric lights factories never had to stop production.
The development of the internal-combustion engine provided a new power source for transportation and new kinds of transportation—ocean liners, airplanes, and the automobile.
Increased sales of manufactured goods caused industrial production to grow. Wages increased after 1870. Reduced transportation costs caused prices to fall. Urban department stores put many consumer goods up for sale.
Some European countries did not benefit from the Second Industrial Revolution. Great Britain, the Netherlands, Belgium, France, and other countries had a high standard of living. Spain, Portugal, Russia, Austria-Hungary, the Balkans, and southern Italy were agricultural and much less wealthy. They provided the industrialized nations with food and raw materials.
There developed a true world economy in Europe. Europeans were receiving goods from all corners of the world. European capital was invested abroad to develop railroads, power plants, and other industrial projects. Europe dominated the world economy by 1900.

ORGANIZING THE WORKING CLASS
Industrial workers formed socialist political parties and unions to improve their working conditions. Karl Marx developed the theory they were based on.
In 1848 Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels published The Communist Manifesto. They were appalled by industrial working conditions and blamed capitalism. They proposed a new social system. One form of Marxist socialism was eventually called communism.
Marx believed world history was a history of class struggle between the oppressing owners of the means of production and the oppressed workers. The oppressors controlled politics and government. Government is an instrument of the ruling class.
Marx believed that society was increasingly dividing between the bourgeoisie (middle-class oppressors) and the proletariat (working-class oppressed), each hostile to the other. Marx predicted the conflict would result in a revolution in which the proletariat would violently overthrow the bourgeoisie and form a dictatorship (a government in which a person or group has absolute power). The revolution would ultimately produce a society without classes and class conflict.
Working-class leaders formed parties based on Marx’s ideas. The German Social Democratic Party (SPD), which emerged in 1875, was the most important. SPD delegates in the parliament worked to pass laws for improving conditions of the working class. The SPD became Germany’s largest party in 1912 when it received four million votes.
Socialist parties emerged in other European states. In 1889 various socialist leaders formed the Second International, an association of socialist groups dedicated to fighting worldwide capitalism. Marxist parties divided over their goals, however. Pure Marxists looked to overthrow capitalism violently. Other Marxists, called revisionists, rejected this revolutionary program and argued to work with other parties for reforms. Democratic rights would help workers achieve their goals.
Trade unions also worked for evolutionary, not revolutionary, change. In Great Britain in the 1870s unions won the right to strike. Trade union workers used the strike to achieve other reforms.
By 1900 two million workers were in British trade unions. By 1914 there were four million, and trade unions had made great progress in many European countries toward improving conditions for the workers.
Trade unions also worked for evolutionary, not revolutionary, change. In Great Britain in the 1870s unions won the right to strike. Trade union workers used the strike to achieve other reforms.
By 1900 two million workers were in British trade unions. By 1914 there were four million, and trade unions had made great progress in many European countries toward improving conditions for the workers.

4-1 Notes: Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution
Great Britain – The starting point
o Why was it the first place for the IR to start?
1) agriculture – improvements led to an increase in the food supply
2) population – more food= more people
a. enclosure movement – Parliament allowed landowners to fence off land; peasants forced to move to towns.
3) capital – GB had the money to invest in new machines and factories
a. a new group, entrepreneurs, began. The wanted to find new ways to make money.
4) natural resources – water power from rivers, coal & iron ore
5) markets – a colonial empire, GB had many places to sell their goods
a. demand at home increased with the population
o Cotton became a high demand product
 Britain became the #1 manufacturer of cheap cotton goods
 At the beginning of the 18th century, cotton cloth was produced by individuals in their homes
• Known as cottage industry
New inventions made the cottage industry inefficient
1) Flying shuttle – increased weaving speed, so more thread was needed
2) Spinning jenny – increased spinning speed – people could make thread more quickly (invented by Hargreaves)
3) Water-powered loom – people came to the machines; ran on water, made weaving more efficient (invented by Cartwright)
4) Steam engine – could be used to spin and weave, became cotton mill staple
Because of these inventions, it became more practical to make cotton cloth in factories than in individual homes
o Coal & Iron
Steam engines depended on coal to run
• As the steam engine grew more popular, the need for coal increased
• Also contributed to the transformation of the iron industry
Henry Court found a way to make a better quality of iron using a process called puddling
• Puddling changes crude (aka pig iron) into high quality iron
o Railroads
In the 19th century, more efficient transportation was developed: the railroad
• 1st locomotive ran in 1804
• The Rocket was the 1st to run on a public railway line from Liverpool to Manchester
• More railroads = more jobs
• Cheaper transportation = cheaper goods = more money = more factories
o Factories
Created a new labor system
Run 24 hours, workers worked in shifts
Workers were used to a rural farming schedule
• Discipline was needed to make them work regular hours at repetitive tasks
o Adults fired for being late
o Children beaten
The Spread of Industrialization
o Europe
Spread at different times and speeds
After England, the 1st 3 countries to become industrialized : Belgium, France, & German States
Governments active in the spread of industrialization
• Provided money for new transportation
o North America
Hit in the mod 1800’s
Population and cities grew
Because the US is a large country, transportation systems were vital
• Steamboats were invented by Robert Fulton
• Railroads were built, spread across the US
Labor came from farmers
• Most factory workers = female
o Children also a majority
Some factory owners wanted entire families working for them
Social Impact in Europe
o The IR changed the social life of Europe
Seen in: growth of cities and the emergence of new social classes
o Population & City growth
By 1850, population had doubled – why?
• a decline in death rates
• people ate better
• were more resistant to diseases
• no food shortages (except the potato famine)
City growth is directly related to industrialization
• Using the steam engines, factory owners could set up in cities
• People moved to the cities to work in factories
• In England, 50% of the population lived in cities by 1850
Quick city growth = poor living conditions
• Too many people, nowhere to put them
• By 1850 population had doubled – why?
o Industrial middle class
Industrial capitalism – economic system based o industrial production
The Industrial middle class was made up of the people who built factories, bought the machines, and found markets
• They were ambitious and greedy
• Had initiative & vision
o Industrial working class
Workers worked in rotten conditions
Worst conditions – cotton mills
Coal mines are also bad
• People had to dig & haul coal
Dangers: gas fumes, explosions, cave men, got bad lungs, and was deformed
two-thirds of workers were women and kids reduced the age of kids
• Factory act of 1834
o Set 9 as the minimum wage
o Kids 9-13: 9 hours a day
o Kids 13-18: 12 hours a day
o As the number of kids decreasedd, the number of women workers increased
50 % of workforce by 1950
Paid 50% of Men’s Pay
Hours limited in1844
o As laws limited children and women ours, men were required outside the house, doing laundry and sewed for cash
Women moved inside, doing laundry
• Socialism
o System where that government owns and controls the means of production (like factories, etc)
o Idea created by the poor conditions
First created by intellectuals
• Wanted cooperation, not competition
• Known as utopian society
o Robert Owen – turned bad factory towns in prosperous communities

Test!

You have a test next class- be sure to study Chapter 4 sections 2-4.  

Your chapter assessment questions will be due next class- turn them in before the test. 

4.4 Culture: Romance & Realism

ROMANTICISM
At the end of the eighteenth century, the intellectual movement known as romanticism emerged in reaction to Enlightenment ideas. The Enlightenment had stressed reason for discovering truth. The romantics emphasized feelings and imagination as sources of knowing.
For romanticism, emotions were truly knowable only by the person experiencing them. Romantic works often feature figures isolated from society but sure about the worth of their inner lives. Romanticism also stressed individualism, the belief that each person is unique. Many romantics rebelled against middle-class conventions.
Many romantics also had a deep interest in the past, and revived medieval architectural styles, such as with the Houses of Parliament in London. Sir Walter Scott’s novel of clashes among medieval knights, Ivanhoe, was wildly popular. By focusing on their nation’s past, many romantic writers reflected nineteenth-century nationalism. The exotic, unfamiliar, and extreme attracted romantics, as is seen in Gothic literature such as Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein and the works of Edgar Allen Poe.
Romantics viewed poetry as the direct expression of the soul. Romantic poetry gave expression to a vital part of romanticism, the love of nature. This is clearly seen in the poetry of William Wordsworth. The worship of nature caused romantics to criticize the new science, which they believed reduced nature to a cold object of mathematical study that had no room for the imagination or the human soul.
In Shelley’s novel, Frankenstein’s monster was a symbol of the danger of science’s attempt to conquer nature. Romantics feared that industrialization would alienate people from their inner selves and the natural world.
Romantic artists shared two basic beliefs: art reflects the artist’s inner soul and art should abandon classical reason for warmth and emotion. Eugène Delacroix was the most famous romantic painter in France.
To many, music was the most romantic art because it probed so deeply into human emotions. Ludwig van Beethoven was one of the greatest composers of all time. While his early work was more classical, his later music, beginning with his Third Symphony, embodied the drama and power of romanticism. He felt music had to reflect deep feeling.

NEW AGE OF SCIENCE
The Industrial Revolution increased interest in scientific research. By the 1830s science had made discoveries that benefited all Europeans.
The Frenchman Louis Pasteur proposed the germ theory of disease, laying the foundation for modern medical research. The Russian Dmitry Mendeleyev classified all the materials elements then known by their atomic weights. The Englishman Michael Faraday was laying the foundation for the use of electric current.
Europeans’ increasing faith in science and the material world weakened their religious faith. Secularization increased throughout the nineteenth century. No one did more to create a picture of humans as material beings than Charles Darwin. In 1859 Charles Darwin published his On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection. Darwin proposed his principle of organic evolution. Species of animals and plants develop through a struggle for existence. Those that adapt better survive, in a process Darwin called natural selection.
Darwin argued in The Descent of Man that human beings had animal origins. Darwin’s ideas were controversial, but over the years many scientists and intellectuals have accepted them.

REALISM
The belief that the world should be viewed realistically is related to the scientific outlook and the modern “politics of reality.” Realism became a movement in the arts as well.
Literary realists rejected romanticism. They wanted to depict actual characters from real life, not exotic, past heroes. The French author Gustave Flaubert perfected the realist novel, most famously in Madame Bovary where he criticizes stifling, conformist small-town life in France.
The British novelist Charles Dickens wrote highly successful realist novels focusing on the lower and middle classes in Britain’s early Industrial Age. He described the brutal realities of urban poverty.
The French painter Gustave Courbet was the most famous realist painter, portraying scenes of workers, peasants, and the wives of saloon keepers. He would paint only what he could see. Many objected to his paintings as ugly and found his painting of human misery scandalous. To Courbet, no subject was too ordinary, too harsh, or too ugly.

4-3 Notes: Nationalism and Unification

Breakdown of the Concert of Europe

• The nationalist goals of the 1848 revolutionaries would be achieved later. By 1871 both Germany and Italy were unified, a change caused by the Crimean War.
• The Crimean War was rooted in a conflict between Russia and the Ottoman Empire, which controlled much of the Balkans in southeastern Europe. The power of the Ottoman Empire declined in the nineteenth century.
• Russia wanted to expand into the Balkans so it could have access to the Dardanelles and the Mediterranean Sea, giving it the naval might to be the great power in eastern Europe. Russia invaded the Turkish Balkan provinces of Moldavia and Walachia, and the Ottomans declared war on Russia. Great Britain and France, fearing Russia’s ambitions, allied with the Ottomans. The Crimean War was on.
• Heavy losses caused the Russians to seek peace. In the Treaty of Paris of 1856, Russia agreed to have Moldavia and Walachia placed under the protection of all the great powers.
• The Crimean War destroyed the Concert of Europe. Austria and Russia had been the two powers maintaining order, but now they were enemies because Austria had not supported Russia in the Crimean War due to its own interests in the Balkans.
• Russia withdrew from European affairs for the next 20 years. Austria had no friends among the great powers, and Germany and Italy now could unify.

Italian Unification

• In 1850 Austria was still the dominant power on the Italian Peninsula. After 1848 people looked to the northern Italian state of Piedmont to lead the fight for unification.
• The king of Piedmont named Camillo di Cavour his prime minister. Cavour pursued economic expansion, which gave the government enough money to support a large army. He then made an alliance with the French emperor Louis-Napoleon, knowing his army by itself could not defeat Austria, and provoked the Austrians into invading Piedmont. It was 1859.
• The conflict resulted in a peace settlement that made Piedmont an independent state. Cavour’s success caused nationalists in other northern Italian states to overthrow their governments and join their states to Piedmont.

• In southern Italy a new patriotic leader for unification emerged—Giuseppe Garibaldi. He raised an army of one thousand volunteers, called Red Shirts because of the color of their uniforms.
• France ruled the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies (Sicily and Naples). A revolt broke out in Sicily against the Bourbon king, and Garibaldi and his forces landed on the island. By July 1860 they controlled most of the island. They marched up the mainland and Naples soon fell. Garibaldi turned his conquests over to Piedmont, and in 1861 a new Kingdom of Italy was proclaimed. King Victor Emmanuel II, who had been king of Piedmont, was crowned ruler.
• Italy’s full unification would mean adding Venetia, held by Austria, and Rome, held by the pope and supported by the French. The Italian state allied with Prussia in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866. When Prussia won, it gave Venetia to the Italians. France withdrew from Rome in 1870. The Italian army annexed Rome that same year, and Rome became the capital of the united Italy.

German Unification

• Prussia led Germans unification.
• 1860s: William I tried to make the army bigger, and tried to raise taxes to pay for it
• When the legislature refused to levy the tax, William I appointed a new prime minister, Otto von Bismarck.
• One of the greatest 19th c. followers of realpolitik - practical politics that don’t care about ethics and are more focused on power.
• He ignored the legislature because he believed that the army was more important than the people having a say
• Allied with Austria and took over Denmark
• Austro-Prussian War (1866): Bismark turns against his allies, Austria, and they fight. Prussia’s army is better, and they win.
• Prussia organized northern German states into a North German Confederation.
• The southern German states signed military alliances with Prussia for protection against France, even though Prussia was Protestant and southern Germany was Catholic.
• France feared a strong German state.
• Franco-Prussian War (1870): Both France and Prussia argued over who would become king of Spain; this led to war.
• Prussia won, advancing into France, capturing the king (Napoleon III) and an entire army.
• Paris surrendered and signed a treaty in 1871.
• France paid 5 billion francs and gave up the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine.
• After the Prussian victory, the southern states joined the North German Confederation.
• On January 18, 1871, in the Hall of Mirrors in the palace of Versailles, William I of Prussia was proclaimed kaiser, or emperor, of the Second German Empire (the first was the Holy Roman Empire).
• Military power combined with industrial resources made the new state the strongest power on the European continent.

Nationalism and Reform in Europe
Britain

• A good economy added to its stability.
• After 1850, the industrial middle class was prosperous and the wages of the industrial working class were beginning to go up.
• The British feeling of national pride was reflected in Queen Victoria (ruled 1837-1901). Her sense of duty and moral respectability were reflected in her era, known as the Victorian Age.

France

• After 1848 events in France moved towards restoring the monarchy.
• In the 1852 plebiscite, or popular vote, 97% voted to restore the empire. Louis-Napoleon became Napoleon III.
• Napoleon III’s government was authoritarian.
• He controlled the army, police, and civil service.
• Only he could introduce laws or declare war.
• He limited civil liberties and focused on expanding the economy.
• Government subsidies built railroads, harbors, canals, and roads. Iron production tripled.
• He also fixed up Paris, putting in better streets, big buildings, public squares, an underground sewage system, a public water supply, and gaslights. It was modern.
• After the Prussians defeated the French the Second Empire fell.

Austria

• The multinational state of Austria had been able to stop attempts of its ethnic groups for independence.
• After 1848 and 1849, the Hapsburg rulers restored centralized, autocratic government.
• After the Austro-Prussian War, Austria had to make a deal with Hungary
• Compromise of 1867: It created the dual Austria-Hungary monarchy.
• Each party had its own constitution, legislature, bureaucracy, and capital—Vienna for Austria and Budapest for Hungary.
• Holding the two states together was a single monarch (Francis Joseph), a common army, foreign policy, and a shared financial system.
• Domestically, Hungary had become an independent state. Other states were not happy with the compromise.

Russia

• At the beginning of the 19th c,, Russia was a highly rural, autocratic state with a divine-right monarch with absolute power.
• When Russia was defeated in the Crimean War, Czar Alexander knew that Russia was falling behind western Europe and needed to modernize.
• New Reforms: 1861- he freed the serfs with an emancipation edict.
• Peasants could now own property and marry as they wished.
• The government bought land from the landlords and gave it to the peasants.
• Landowners often kept the best land for themselves, and the system was not helpful to peasants. Emancipation had led to an unhappy, land-starved peasantry following old ways of farming.
• A group of radicals assassinated Alexander II in 1881. His son and successor returned to the old methods of repression—soldiers, secret police, censorship, and the like.

USA

• The U.S. Constitution followed the ideals of nationalism and liberalism.
• Federalists and Republicans fought over the division of power. The Federalists wanted a strong central government, the Republicans wanted strong state governments.
• The election of Andrew Jackson opened a new, more democratic era of American politics. The right to vote was extended to all adult white males, regardless of property.
• By the mid 19th American unity was threatened by slavery. The South wanted to keep slavery. Abolitionism, a movement to end slavery, arose in the North and challenged the South.
• After Abraham Lincoln was elected president, South Carolina and six other southern states seceded (withdrew) from the Union, and the Civil War(1861-1865) broke out
• Over 600,000 soldiers died.
• In 1863 President Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, freeing the slaves.
• On April 9, 1865, the South surrendered and national unity prevailed in the United States.

4-2: Reaction & Revolution

Reaction and Revolution
• The Congress of Vienna (Sept 1814)
o Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia
o Met to restore order after Napoleon
Restoration of the monarchy
o Rearranged to keep the balance of power
Kept any one country from dominating Europe
o Led by Von Mitternich, the Austrian foreign minister
• The Conservative Order
o Leaders in the Congress were believers in conservatism
Based on tradition and stability
Organization is essential
Avoided resolution of problems
o Concert of Europe - meetings of the great powers to maintain power
o They adopted a principle of intervention
Any country could send armies into another country to stop rebellion & reinstate the monarch
Every country but agreed Britain
• Forces of Change
o Liberalism – a philosophy based on Enlightenment ideals
People should be free from restraints
Pushed for the protection of basic rights for all people, or civil liberties
• Freedom of speech, press, etc
• Equality under the law
• Rights should be outlined in a document like the Bill of Rights
• Wanted religious toleration
• Separation of church & state
Wanted constitutional monarchy
• King + legislature to make laws
Did not believe in democracy
• Gives power and votes to the middle class
o Nationalism – a movement based on the people’s awareness of being part of a community or nation
Bonded by commonalities
People are loyal to the nation, not a dynasty or other unit
Became popular after the French Revolution
Other countries found nationalism
• German states wanted to become unified
• Hungarians wanted their own rule
Became a threat to existing political order
• Conservatives worried
Became tied to liberalism and reached a wider audience
o Revolutionary outbursts began in 1830, influenced by liberalism and nationalism
Successful
• France: liberals kicked out Charles X and put a new king, Louis-Philippe, on the throne
• Belgium: rebelled and became an independent state
Not
Poland: tried to rebel, beaten by Russia
Italy: defeated by Austria
• The Revolutions of 1848 – liberal and national forces grew & clashed with conservative governments
o France – influenced other revolutions
Causes:
• 1) economic problems
• 2) middle class wanted the right to vote
• 3) government wouldn’t make changes
Govt was overthrown by republicans (people who wanted France to be a republic)
• Set up a provisional (temporary) gov’t
o Set up a group to write a new constitution
o Opened workshops to employ the jobless, which bankrupted the gov’t so they were shut down
o Workers got upset and rioted, were defeated & sent to prison
• Nov 4, 1848 – new constitution set up a republic
o Gov’t elected by universal male suffrage (all adult men can vote)
New president – Louis_Napoeeon
o Germany
German Confederation: 38 independent German states (including Austria & Prussia)
• To calm cries for change, rulers promised lots of things
• The Frankfurt Assembly, an all-German Parliament, was set up to write a constitution for a united Germany
o It failed because the Assembly couldn’t force rulers to accept it
o Central Europe
Austrian Empire was a multinational state
Revolutionary groups from several of the smaller countries inside it pushed for independence
• Hungary got its own legislature
• Bohemia pushed for its own gov’t
• Both areas were eventually subdued
o Italy
9 states set up in Italy – some of them were controlled by Austria
A revolt broke out in 1848 to try and make a unified liberal Italy
• Defeated by the Austrians

French Revolution Test Review

Identifty the following people:
Louis XVI
Marie Antoinette
Robespierre
Jean Paul Marat
Georges Danton
sans-culottes

What did the National Assembly do?
What was the Tennis Court Oath?
What was the Civil Constitution of the Clergy?
What did the Legislative Assembly do?
What did the Paris Commune do?
What was the Declaratio of the Rights of Man and Citizen?


What were Napoleon's mistakes?
What did he do England?
Wherewas Napoleon sent?
What was the Civil Code?

Creating a Tombstone: the French Revolution

Creating a Tombstone: the French Revolution

1)      Choose a person/thing from the French Revolution

a.       Louis XVI

b.      Marie Antoinette

c.       Charlotte Corday

d.      Jean Paul Marat

e.       Olympe de Gouges

f.       Georges Danton

g.      The Bastille

h.      Maximillian Robespierre

i.        French Monarchy

j.        National Assembly

k.      Legislative Assembly

l.        National Convention

2)      Using your tombstone, make a tombstone for that person.  Include:

a.       name

b.      dates (birth, death)

c.       who/what they were

d.      why they were important

e.       how they died/ how it ended

3)      Use colors & image to make it look good.

If you use pencil, make sure you go over it with pen at the end.  

Due at the end of class 10/15

French Revolution Timeline

1740: War of Austrian Succession – France goes into debt
May 1770 – Louie marries Marie Antoinette
1774 – Louis XVI takes power
1776 – American Revolution begins
1778 – France gives aid to the colonists, goes further into debt
1783 – Treaty of Paris ends American Revolution…the colonists freedom makes the French people jealous
1786 – France is broke
1787 – the government works to crate a new tax plan to help the country get money
July 2-parliament rejects the new tax law
Aug 6-Louis calls an impromptu parliament who passes it. Parliament declares Louis’s move illegal
Aug 15- Louis disbands parliament
1788 (Dec) The Minister of Finance, Jacques Necker, doubles the representatives of the third Estate in the Estates General
1789 – (May 5 ) Estates General meets
June 10 – The third estate’s vote is vetoed by the 1st and 2nd estate
Jun 17 –upset by their lack of power, the 3rd estate declares itself a National Assembly
June 20 – the national assembly is locked out of the meeting house and signs the Tennis Court Oath, declaring that thy will continue to met until they sign a constitution
Members of the other estates join the national assembly
July 14 – a large crowd storms the Bastille
July 17 –beginning of the Great Fear
August 4 –August decree –abolition of feudalism
Aug 26 – Assembly adopts the declaration of the rights of man and citizen
October 5-6 – Paris Mob forms; the women march to Versailles and take the king hostage and move him to Paris; Louis agrees to pass the August decrees
November – Church property and money is taken by the state
1790 –July 12 – Civil Constitution of the Clergy
1791 –Jun 20-25 – Louis and his family attempt to flee…they’re captured and brought back to Paris
Oct 1 – National Assembly disband – Legislative Assembly is formed
1792 – Jan – March: food riots in Paris
August: storming of the palace – Louis and his family are arrested and taken into custody
September - September massacres – half the population of Paris is executed.
Sept 13 –Louis accepts the Assembly’s constitution.
Sept 20: National Convention is formed, made up of elected French men, mostly of the Jacobin Cordelier, and Girondin clubs.
Sept 21 – monarchy is abolished
1793 – Jan – Louis XVI executed
July – Robespierre takes control of the Committee of Public Safety
July 1793 – 1794 – Reign of Terror
1794 – July 28 - Robespierre executed; reign of terror ends
1794 – 1795 – Thermidorian Reaction: marked the return to moderation; the focus went back to how to fix the economy of France
1795-1799 – the Directory rules France
1799 – Napoleon overthrows the government and takes control of France

Chapter 2 Study Guide

Know these people:
Isaac Newton
Voltaire
John Locke
Montesquieu
Rousseau
Charles I
James I
George III
Thomas Jefferson
Oliver Cromwell
Rump Parliament
Framers

Know these documents:
Declaration of Grievances
Declaration of Independence
Bill of Rights (English)
Articles of Confideracy
Act of Supremacy
Social Contract

Know these events:
Why did William and Mary take over England?
Why did the Framers not want a strong central government?
Where did the Enlightenment start?
Whose ideas are in the Declaration of Independence?
Whose ideas are in the Constitution?

2-3: The American Revolution

The American Revolution
Step 1:
• England sends people (COLONISTS) to the colonies to get raw materials (goods, supplies)
Step 2:
• The French and English fight over the colonies. This is the French & Indian War,
• The English win and get Florida and Canada
Step 3: The Stamp Act
• The French and English fight over the colonies. This is the French & Indian War,
• The English win and get Florida and Canada
Step 4:
• – After the people in the colonies got mad, Parliament took the Stamp Act away (repealed).
Step 5: Tariffs
to make money and make sure that the colonists were buying British goods, heavy taxes were put on all goods.
Step 6:
• – To make colonists happy, the king agrees to take away all taxed accept the Tea Tax
• The tea tax made it so that English tea was cheaper than American tea
Step 7: Boston Tea Party
• Mad because they were not being treated fairly, some colonists dressed up as Indians and threw tea in the harbor.
Step 8: Intolerable Acts
• King George is angry. He took away all of the rights of the people.
Step 9:
• 1st Continental Congress
• The colonists meet and write a letter to the King. They also form small local armies (militias)
Step 10:
• – King George sends troops to make sure that the people don’t fight back. This leads to…
Step 11: Battle at Lexington
• British troops are sent to take away all of the militia’s guns. They fight the colonists, and by the time they got to where the weapons are stored, the colonists have moved them.
Patriots: wanted independence\
• Thomas Paine: “Common sense” compared England to tyrants
Loyalists: wanted to remain loyal British citizens
•
Step 12: 2nd Continental Congress
• People from each colony meet, construct plans for their next move, and create the Declaration of Independence
The Declaration of Independence
• Written by Jefferson
• Said that the colonies were independent
• Restated natural rights
• Also a declaration of war

A mismatched War
• British army: fit, well trained, lots of supplies
• Continental army: no real military training, small, brand new army
• Why did We win?
– Home team advantage
– Support from other countries
After the War
• A new gov’t was needed.
• Articles of confederation: 1st constitution (1781)
– Didn’t meet the needs of the country
– No strong central gov’t
The Constitution
• Federal system: shared power between national & state gov’t
• 3 branches of gov’t
• Outlined the powers of the federal & state
Bill of Rights
• 1st ten amendments
• Gave freedom of religion, speech, press, and assembly, among other things
• Embodied the ideals of the enlightenment
Long Term Effects
• Served as the inspiration for later revolutions in Latin America, the French revolution, and as a model for governments in Asia and Africa

Foldable: Revolutions

Step 1: Fold the paper in half hot dog (lengthwise)
Step 2: still folded in half, fold it in 3
Step 3: Unfold  in each space, fill in one of the following  revolutions:
               Glorious Revolution
               American Revolution
              French Revolution

Step 4:  Unfold the paper -inside fill in information on the revolution as we talk about it.
          Include:
           -Dates
          -Who was involved
          -Major Documents
         -What happened

2-2: The Enlightenment

The Enlightenment

What is the Enlightenment?
• A philosophical movement
• Started in France
• Leaders = philosophes
– Writers, professors, journalists reformers
• Inspired by the scientific revolution
• Heroes: Isaac Newton; John Locke

Rationalism, based on the teachings of the ancient Greeks, became the main philosophical method of the Enlightenment.

The Scientific Revolution
The scientific method is a systematic way to carry out research.
Use of the scientific method led to many great discoveries.

Nicolaus Copernicus discovered that the Earth moves around the Sun.
The physician Vesalius dissected corpses to study basic human anatomy. He is now known as the "Father of Modern Anatomy."
The astronomer Galileo Galilei improved the telescope and supported the findings of Copernicus.

Isaac Newton
Isaac Newton was a physicist, mathematician, astronomer, alchemist, and philosopher.
Using intensive experimental methods, Newton discovered the three laws of motion and the universal law of gravitation.

Newton’s work is considered the backbone of modern mechanics.

The Enlightenment
Salons
In 18th-century France, salons were places for Enlightenment thinkers to come together and discuss new ideas. They were hosted by women known as salonnières.
Salon is the French word for drawing room.

The Philosophes
The philosophes were a group of 18th-century intellectuals.
They promoted reason, knowledge and education as the way to overcome superstition and ignorance.
Many of the philosophes wrote plays, novels, and reference books to avoid open confrontation with the church.
Natural Rights
Thomas Paine believed that governments do not give people rights, but that people are born with natural rights, some of which they voluntarily give up to governments.

Thomas Jefferson included the natural rights of life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness in the Declaration of Independence.

Thomas Hobbes also believed that if people want to live peacefully they have to give up some natural rights.

John Locke thought that the three most important natural rights are life, liberty, and property.

Thomas Hobbes
Thomas Hobbes published Leviathan in 1651.
Hobbes wrote that without government, human life would be "nasty, brutish, and short."
To escape this, humanity accepts a social contract with an authority to ensure peace and protection.

John Locke
Theory of the social contract
Theory of toleration
Belief that all men are created free and equal
Belief in the separation of church and state
Empiricism: using experience to find truth
John Locke’s ideas directly influenced the French, American, and Latin American revolutions.
His ideas can be found in the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution of the United States.

Voltaire
• Middle class Frenchman
• Wrote all kinds of documents
• Thrown in prison & exiled
• Inspired by the English freedoms
• He opposed the Catholic Church because they supported absolutism
• Wrote Treatise on Toleration
• Was a deist – god make the world & left it alone to run, like a clock

Montesquieu
• A French noble
• Wrote Spirit of the Laws about government
• 3 basic governments:
– Republics for small states
– Monarchies for med states
– Despotism for large states
• England was an ideal monarchy
• Believed in separation of powers – dividing up government between branches so 1 group/person can’t take control
• This created a system of checks & balances
• Used in the development of the American government

Rousseau
• Poor Frenchman
• Wrote Discourse on the Origins of the Inequality of Mankind – people made laws to protect their stuff
• Social Contract – a society makes an agreement to be governed by the general will of the people
• He wrote Emile about education – it should foster kids’ natural instincts
• Looked for a balance between emotion & reason

Adam Smith
• An English economist
• Believed in laissez-faire = letting the people do what they want
– Gov’t shouldn’t interfere in the economy
– It should just control: army, public works, & police

Cesare Becerra
• Wrote On Crimes and Punishments
• thought that harsh punishment didn’t stop crime
• Against capital punishment

Denis Diderot
• Wrote a 28 volume encyclopedia, on everything he could think of
• It took him from 1751 to 1772

Mary Wollstonecraft
• Leader of the movement for women’s rights
• Wrote A Vindication of the Rights of Women
• thought it was stupid that people thought that the kings shouldn’t have total power over people thought that men should have total power over women
• Believed that the Enlightenment was based on human reason, and since women were human, they should have equal rights

Newspapers & Literacy
• During this period, literacy (the ability to read) goes up
• This is due to the wider availability of reading materials
• The first newspaper was printed in London in 1702
• Magazines were another new product
• Both were cheap, some papers were free

Enlightenment in America
• Colonists were exposed to Enlightenment writings from England
• Thomas Jefferson & James Madison were influenced by Locke’s ideas
• The Declaration of Independence is heavily influenced by Locke

Project # 1 - Enlightenment Newspaper

Your assignment is to create a newspaper or magazine article about a person or topic from the Enlightenment, as if you were actually present during that period and could interact with those you will write about.
Types of articles you can choose from:
*interview
*"breaking news" story
*editorial
*political cartoon
*news report
*feature piece

Requirements
*1 paragraph minimum, 2 pages max
*Typed, 12 pt font
*Should include a picture, if possible
*Title and byline (by Your Name) at the top of the article

Outside research is encouraged. Be creative! Your articles will be combined into a class magazine that will reflect the changing ideas made during the Enlightenment.

9-3 Hitler and Nazi Germany

HITLER AND NAZI GERMANY

ADOLF HITLER

• Born in Austria

• A failed painter

• Strongly believed that Germany was a super-country and its people were supermen

• His ideas on the superiority of Germany, racism, antisemitism, and the necessity of struggle influenced his actions

HITLER’S RISE TO POWER

• After WWI, Hitler joined the German Workers Party, an extremist party

• In less than 2 years, he had taken over and Changed the name to the Nationalist Socialist German Workers’ Party (Nazi)

– Got a lot of people to join

• Created a militia, the SA (Storm Troops or Brownshirts

• 11/1923 – Beer Hall Putsch: Hitler tried to lead an uprising against the gov’t

– Arrested and went to jail

– In jail he wrote Mein Kampf

• After he got out, he worked on making the Nazi Party a major political party

– By 1931, it was the 3rd largest party in the Reichstag (parliament)

• In rallies, he promised to improve the economy, make Germany great again

– This got the support of the people

– The rich, business owners, military officials, and others supported him.

• 1933 – President Hindenburg makes him chancellor because he’s under pressure from important people

• The “Enabling Act” – gave Hitler the power to ignore the constitution

– Made him a dictator

• He quickly brought all parts of the country under union control

– No more unions or other political parties

– Creates a totalitarian state

– Everyone had to call him “Fuhrer” (leader)

• Hitler’s goal: develop an Aryan racial state to take over Europe

– Aryan – the word Hitler used to refer to the descendents of the ancient Greeks and Romans

– Hitler wanted to create an empire: the Third Reich

– They worked to make this empire through economic policies, racial policies, and organizations (like Hitler Youth and the SS)

TERROR AND REPRESSION

• SS (Schutzstaffen): originally Hitler’s bodyguard, later both the secret and regular police

– Controlled by Himmler

– Based on terror and repression

– Used concentration camps (labor camps) execution squads, and other methods to instill fear

– Goal: further the German master race

• To improve the economy, he started projects that required the hiring of more workers

– He also rebuild the army and built more weapons

• To involve the people, he held rallies, where the people would come and he’s talk to them

• Churches and schools were controlled by the Nazis. They passed along Nazi messages and propaganda

ANTI-SEMETIC POLICIES

• Nuremberg Laws: Jews can’t be German citizens (you’re Jewish if your grandparents were Jewish)

– They had to wear identification cards and wear yellow Stars of David

• Kristallnacht (Night of shattered glass) Nov. 9, 1938

– Nazis burned synagogues and destroyed businesses. 30,000 were taken to concentration camps

– New laws were passed: Jews were barred from all public places, couldn’t own stores, and were encouraged to emigrate (leave)

HITLER VS MUSSOLINI

Hitler took many of Mussolini’s policies and practices

Mussolini Hitler

OVRA SA/SS

Both used propaganda to make the people believe them

Used nonviolent methods to take over the government

Given power by the leader of the country